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   Gastrointestinal agent Gastrointestinal agents are drug which produce different effect in the gastrointestinal tract. Medications for gastrointestinal diseases and symptoms include prescription and nonprescription drugs, conventional and unconventional agents, simple small molecules, complex macromolecules and large recombinant proteins. These medications are can be classified based upon their use: drugs for nausea and vomiting (antiemetics), prokinetic agents, laxatives, antidiarrheal agents, drugs for acid peptic disease, drugs for irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease and, of course, miscellaneous. Agents used for gastrointestinal disease rarely cause liver injury. One reason for this is that they are often locally active and result in little systemic exposure. The immunomodulatory agents used to treat inflammatory bowel disease are an exception, being given systemically, often intravenously and capable of causing liver injury, although not very frequently...

      Nitrogen [N₂] Nitrogen occur in the atmosphere to exist 76% it also occur in large quantities as white salt .      example in plant and animal tissue ( inorganic combination as protein, amino acid and alkaloid.) it is also present as nitrate in the soil formed by soil bacteria (nitrogen fixing bacteria rhizobium). Preparation  * nitrogen is obtained by removing the oxygen from atmospheric air high burning Phosphorus in closed container. * when solution are sodium nitrate and ammonium chloride or sulphate is reacted nitrogen is formed. NaNO₂ + NH₄Cl → NH₄NO₂ + NaCl ↓  NH₄NO₂ → N₂ + H₂O * nitrogen is formed when ammonium dichloride is heated. (NH₄)₂Cr₂O₇ → N₂ + Cr₂O₃ + 4H₂O Physical Property * nitrogen is colorless, odourless and tasteless gas. * it is not inflammable. * it condenses a liquid. * it has boiling point 195.8 ℃. * it is soluble in water(1 in 65) and alcohol(1 in 9) at normal temperature and pressure. Chemical property * nitrogen n...

     Sodium nitrite           [NaNO₂] Sodium nitrite is similar in name and use to sodium nitrate. Both are preservatives used in processed meats, such as salami, hot dogs, and bacon. Sodium nitrite has been synthesized by several chemical reactions that involve the reduction of sodium nitrate. Industrial production of sodium nitrite is primarily by the absorption of nitrogen oxides into aqueous sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide. Over the years, sodium nitrite has raised some concerns about its safety in foods, but it remains in use and there are indications that it may actually be healthy. Preparation * sodium nitrite is usually obtained by strongly heating sodium nitrate. 2NaNO₃  →  2NaNO₂  + O₂ * oxidation of catalytic ammonia is sodium carbonate solution on absorption gives sodium nitrite. 2Na₂CO₃+ 4NO + O₂ → 4NaNO₂ + CO₂ Physical property * it is a white or yellow granular powder or stick. *it is odourless and saline te...

   Sodium Thio Sulphate [Na₂S₂O₃.5H₂O] Sodium thio sulphate is used as a medication to treat cyanide poisoning, pityriasis versicolor, and to decrease side effects from cisplatin. For cyanide poisoning it is often used after the medication sodium  nitrite and typically only recommended for severe cases. Preparation * It can also prepared by passing sulphur dioxide into sodium sulphide. 2Na₂S + 3SO₂  → 2Na₂S₂O₃ + 1/2 S₂ * one half of a concentrated solution of sodium carbonate is saturated with Sulphur dioxide and the other half added to it then sodium sulphide is formed. Na₂CO₃ + 2SO₂ + H₂O → 2NaHSO₃ + CO₂ Na₂CO₃  +  2NaHSO → 2Na₂S₂O₃  + H₂O + CO↑ Physical property * it is colourless odourless and transparent crystalline powder. * it have bitter taste. * it is very soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. * it have melting point 56℃. *In its anhydrous form, sodium thiosulfate has a molar mass of 158.11 grams per mole. The more commonly available pent...

   Sodium meta bisulphate [Na₂S₂O₅] Or Sodium puri sulfate,  Na₂S₂O₅  commercially produced salt of sulphurous acid, is a preservative used to extend the shelf life of meat products such as fresh sausages and burgers, even though it can have adverse effects on some people, especially asthmatics. Na₂S₂O₅ i s not permitted in several countries for use in meat products. Chemically,  Na₂S₂O₅  67% sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ). When SMBS is applied to a meat product, the  Na₂S₂  reacts with water and, as a rule of thumb, around 50–55% added  N a₂S₂O₅  can be found analytically in the meat product as SO 2 . Some SO 2  is ‘lost’ as a result of countless reactions and cannot be detected any longer. Therefore meat  products are not analysed with regard to their  Na₂S₂O₅  content. The level of SO 2  has to be measured instead and food standards refer to the SO 2  level, rather than the  Na₂S₂O  level, of a product...

   Sodium bisulfate          [NaHSO₄]  Overview Sodium bisulfate is an acidic salt of sulfuric acid and is also known as sodium hydrogen sulfate. The chemical formula of sodium bisulfate is NaHSO 4  and its molar mass is 120.06 g/mol. It also exists as a monohydrate salt (with one molecule of water) with the molar mass of 138.07 g/mol. It is the monosodium salt of the diprotic sulfuric acid. It is composed of the sodium cation (Na + ) and bisulfate anion (HSO 4 - ), which has the sulfur atom bonded to three oxygen atoms and one hydroxyl group. It is a dry granular product that can be safely shipped and stored. The anhydrous form is hygroscopic. *Preparation* Sodium bisulphate is prepared by passing Sulphur Dioxide into a solution of sodium carbonate till the solution is saturated with Sulphur Dioxide first Sulphur Dioxide dissolved into water to form sulfuric acid. SO₂ + 2H₂O  →  H₂SO₄ + H₂↑ 2H₂SO₄ + Na₂CO₃  →  2NaHSO₄ + H...

   Sulphur Dioxide                     [SO₂] Overview Sulfur dioxide is a respiratory irritant that is highly soluble in the aqueous surfaces of the respiratory airways. Because of this high solubility, most of the sulfur dioxide is absorbed in the nose and upper airways and very little reaches the lungs directly. Inhalation of high ambient concentrations of sulfur dioxide can cause stimulation of the nerves in the air passages, resulting in a reflex cough, irritation, and chest tightness. At extremely high concentrations, the death or pathological changes including laryngotracheal and pulmonary edema can be induced in the respiratory tract of experimental animals. The gas is quite corrosive and can also cause damage to buildings and other materials. It is very acidic *preparation* Sulphur dioxide is prepared by the reaction of metallic sulphide or metallic by sulphite with dilute acid.  or  Sulphur Dioxide is pr...

   Antioxidant  a substance which prevent the oxidation of product called antioxidant.  Antioxidant are chemically reducing agent antioxidant can also call at preservative in the sense that they preserve a product being oxidized. Ideal properties of antioxidant * it should prevent the oxidation of product  * it should be effective in low concentration. * it should be non-toxic and not irritant. * it should not affect colour order and taste  of preparation . *it should be physiologically innert. Example of antioxidant * hypophosphorous acid  *Sulphur Dioxide  *sodium bisulphate  *sodium metabisulphate  *sodium thiosulphate  *nitrogen  * sodium nitrite Hypophosphorus acid [H₃PO₂] Mol.weight - 66 Hypophosphorous acid is a monobasic and reducing agent it is a colourless or slightly yellow order liquid containing 32 to 32% of hypophosphorous acid it is conventionally prepared by treating NaH₂PO₂ with an Ion exchange resin . the wate...

   Sodium Hydroxide            [NaOH] Sodium Hydroxide contains not less than 97 % of total alkali calculated as sodium hydroxide and not more than 2.5 % of sodium carbonate. Preparation When milk of lime is added to hot sodium carbonate solution 20% sodium hydroxide and precipitate of calcium carbonate obtained the reaction is reversible. Na₂CO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ → 2NaOH + CaCO₃↓   The precipitated calcium carbonate is separated the clear liquid containing Sodium Hydroxide is evaporated and the molten product is converted into sticks , pellets or masses. Electrolytic method Sodium Hydroxide is manufactured by the electrolysis of sodium chloride for the purpose of Mercury diaphragm celk, known as castner - kellner cell, is used . It consists of a large rectangular through with a layer of Mercury at the bottom sodium is electrolysed from a concentrated brine solution with a graphite anode and a Mercury cathode to produce a dilute sodium amalgam . the ...

   Strong Ammonium Hydroxide [NH₄OH] Commercially ammonia is obtained from the ammonia liquid which is by product during the production of coal gas ammonical gas is obtained by passing the hard gas through cooling pipe The ammonium hydroxide is also known as the Aqua Ammonia, solution of the ammonia gas inside the water, and also a common commercial form of ammonia. It is a liquid that has no color and has a strong characteristic odor. In the concentrated form, ammonium hydroxide can result in burns on coming in contact with the skin. Moreover, with the ordinary household ammonia, useful as a cleanser, is dilute ammonium hydroxide. Preparation In laboratory ammonia is prepared by heating NH₄Cl with calcium hydroxide.   2NH₄Cl + Ca(OH)₂→ CaCl₂ + 2H₂O + 2NH₃ Commercially ammonia is obtained from the ammonical liquid which is by product during the production of coal gas ammonical gas is obtained by passing the hard gas through cooling pipe. Physical Property * ammonia is a c...

   Hydrochloric Acid             [HCl]  Hydrochloric acid is also known as muriatic acid. Hydrochloric acid is solution of hydrogen chloride. Hydrochloric acid has a distinctive pungent smell. it is classified as strongly acidic.  it can attack the skin over a wide composition range. Preparation Concentrated sulphuric acid and sodium chloride heated in cost iron pan  then HCl gas liberated .  NaCl + H₂SO₄ → HCl + Na₂SO₄ Hydrochloric gas has collected in a chamber where cold water is sprayed cover the gas. the dilute acid obtained. By synthesis  Large amount of hydrogen and chlorine gases are obtained as by product by electrolysis of NaCl solution during the manufacture or caustic soda . these cash are drilled and combined to produce HCl.   Gas →collected→ spray →cold water →solution of dilute acid in tank  Physical property It is a colourless solution has a highly pungent order it is available in many differ...

  Boric acid ( H₃BO₃)       Boric acid is a weak inorganic compound. Occurance or source  Boric acid  occurs naturally in volcanic areas, and in certain minerals such as borax (as sassolite). It is also found in sea water, plants, and fruits in small amounts. Physical property It is white crystalline solid with a density of 1.435 g/ml . *Melting point - 170.9 ℃ *Boiling point - 300 ℃ Chemical property It is weak monobasic acid and is considered a Lewis acid.  its associated with boiling water and in an anhydrous H₂SO₄.  When heated to hiɡh temperature over 170 degrees celsius it undergoes dehydration to form metaboric acid.   H₃BO₃ → HBO₂ + H₂O Preparation It is prepared by reacting mineral such as borax (Na₂B₄O₇.5H₂O) with a mixture of concentrated  sulphuric acid and water is added to a hot aquas solution of borax the hot solution filtered; cool and crystallized then boric acid is obtained. Na₂B₄O₇.5H₂O + H₂SO₄→ Na₂SO₄ + 4 H₃BO₃ C...

       Co-Enzyme Definition A Co-enzyme is a organic non-protein compound that bind with an enzyme to catalyze a reaction .        A coenzyme cannot function lonely but can be used several time when paired with an enzyme. coenzyme or small molecule they cannot be themselves catalyzed reaction they can help enzyme to do . in technical term coenzyme organic non-protein compound that bind with protein molecule to form the active enzyme a number of the water-soluble vitamins such as Vitamin B1 vitamin B2 Vitamin B6 are coenzyme. Function of co-enzyme A enzyme without a coenzyme is called as a apoenzyme (it is an inactive enzyme) without coenzyme and cofactor cannot catalyzed reaction when enzyme with add coenzyme is called as holoenzyme (enzyme + coenzyme = active organic compounds or active enzyme) they are attached to a portion of the active site on enzyme which enable the catalyzed reaction. E.g.- the molecule of ATP can function as a coenzyme when...

      Lipid & Fat Lipid is defined as a substance that is i soluble in water and soluble in alcohol , ether , and chloroform . Lipid are an important of living cell together with carbohydrates and protein .lipid are main constituent of plant and animal . Lipid are easily stored in the body they serve as a source of fuel and an important constituent of the structure of cell.               Lipid include fatty acid  , neutral fat waxes and steroid (e.g. Cortisone) lipid togather with carbohydrates and protein and nucleic acid are one of the major classes of biologically essential . Organic molecule found in all living role biologically such as membrane formation , cell division . Lipid are made from the alcohol glycerol (C₃H₈O₃).              Over the 10000 kinds of lipid has been discovered. Role of Lipid Fat is the major contribution to energy from diet . Supplying 35-40 % food energy . Lipid pl...

   Vitamin C [Ascorbic  acid] Function *It works as antioxidant to inhibit damage of body cell. *It helps in the formation of collagen or or the intracellular cement substance which is necessary for body growth and tissue repair  *It helps to keep capillary valves and blood vessels and some protects our body from bruising. *It helps to our body to absorb iron and copper from plant source of food. *It helps to to keep our gum healthy. *It helps in the synthesis of adrenaline and hydro cortisone . *It protects from infection by stimulating the formation of antibody which boost our body in unity. * Prevent accumulation of histamine in the body. Roll of ascorbic acid  In prevention of common cold and protection against infection. Deficiency Deficiency of vitamin C leads to Scurvy  . Which is characterised weakness, spongy and bleeding gum , loose teeth.     It's deficiency also causes hemorrhage in skin. Over consumption Since vitamin C is water solub...

   Vitamin B-12 [cyanocobalamin] Vitamin B 12 is also called cyanocobalamin , it is the longest and most structurally complicated vitamin . It occur naturally in meat product the human body can store vitamin B 12 for upto 4 years. Source Vitamin V 12 can be found in animal product such as fish , meat , egg, dairy product .    Good dietary product source of vitamin B 12 including beaf , pork , ham (upper part of pig leg) , chicken , fish , dairy product , some yeast .         It is always to maintain a balance diet and receive health full amount of nutrients. Function Vitamin B 12 is normal function of brain and nervous system it is also involve the formation of RBC and help to creat and regulate of DNA  . The metabolism of every cell in the body depend on vitamin B 12 and it play role of synthesis of fatty acid , give energy production of vitamin B 12 enable the regulate of energy by helping the human body , absorbed folic acid . The human bo...

   Vitamin B-7 [Biotin] Vitamin B 7 is also called biotin , the human body can not synthesis biotin . Biotin is co enzyme involve in metabolism of fatty acid is a type of molecule found in fat and oil . Biotin is eliminate through urine. Function *Biotin is important in helping the body to process of glucose and to metabolism fat , carbohydrates and protein it also help transfer of CO₂ . *According European food safety authority biotin contribute to nutrients metabolism . *Maintaining hair , skin , mucus membrane . *Nervous system function. *Psychological function. *Biotin contribute to healthy nail skin and hair so it is widely cosmetic industry. *It play main role of controlling diabetes . *It is maintain glucose on diabetes patient. In take 0 to 6 month.                                 5 mcg/day 7 to 12 month.                      ...

   Vitamin B-6 [Pyridoxine] Vitamin B 6 is alsi called pyridoxine . It is a water soluble vitamin which means it dissolve in water it not stored in body and it is excreted in the urine so need to take in vitamin B 6 every day it is part of family of   b complex.  Type *Pyridoxine *Pyridoxamine *Pyridoxal Roll & Function It is involved in RBC formation as well as energy and amino acid metabolism. It is also required for the release of glucose from food. *This vitamin is most important for deficiency can lead to permanent nerve damage . *Other function of pyridoxine include protein and glucose metabolism and the manufacturing of hemoglobin . *It may help boost brain performance. *It is to insure the normal functioning of digestive enzyme that breakdown food. *Keep healthy skin. In take 0 to 6 month                                 0.1 mg 7 to 12 month.      ...

   Vitamin B-5 [Pantothenic acid]  Vitamin B 5 is also known as pantothenic acid . It is most important vitamin for human life it is necessary for making blood cells and it help you convert ear into energy. Function *Healthy skin *Hair and eyes  *Proper function of nervous system and liver. *Healthy digestive system. *Making RBC which carry RBC through out the body . *Making sex harmone and stress harmone and other related harmone. Source of vitamin B 5 The best way of make sure you are getting enough vitamin B 5 is to ate a healthy diet balance diet every day. Vitamin B 5 is found in most vegetable such like as  *Broccoli cabbage *Member of cabbage family *White and sweet potato  *Whole grain cereals  Other healthy source of vitamin B 5 include   *Mushroom *Nut *Beans *Pea *Lentils *Meat *Chicken *Egg *Dairy product. In take 1 to 6 month                              ...

  Vitamin B 3 [Niacin] Vitamin B 3 is also known as Niacin . It is water soluble vitamin play a key role of skin , digestive system , mental health and support the function of more than 200 enzyme in the body . Vitamin B 3 is a contribute of two chemical nicotinic acid and nicotinamide . The body break down these chemical to produce two aditional chemical of NAD+(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) , NADP+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). Type There are two types - *Nicotinic acid *Nicotinamide *Nicotinic acid The most common for in supplement it is found in both plant and animal source . High dose of nicotinic acid supplement may cause a condition cause niacin flush. *Nicotinamide It is found in other supplement source . Role and function All dietary form of niacin in the converted to NAD and NADP which act as co enzymes ike the other vitamin B as a function of co enzyme in the body. * Playing a essential role in cellular function and acting as an antioxidant one of t...